Panel 6B:
Large Dams and Water Resources Management: Reviewing Alternate Options

Mr. F.C. Oweyegha-Afunaduula
Save Bujagali Crusade & National Association of Professional Environmentalists, Uganda
Corporate Crime and the Craze for Huge Hydro Power Development Projects in Uganda: The Alternatives

The Bujagali falls is one of six falls or extensive rapids targeted by the Ugandan government for large dam construction of a national hydropower network. The plan projects surplus capacity for which the intention is to market the resulting power outside the country, in particular to Kenya. This is not dissimilar to the case of Laos which had similar plans to build large and expensive hydropower plants with a view towards exports to Thailand - at least prior to the Asian financial crisis.

The Save Bujagali Crusade (SBC) and the National Association of Professional Environmentalists (NAPE) are two civic organisations dedicated to saving the falls - a struggle for social and environmental justice in Uganda. They argue that Bujagali has the highest cost of the six proposed dams (albeit, through a flawed assessment where only construction costs were considered). Furthermore, there are alternative electricity supply options that are more acceptable, and the falls are a social, cultural and spiritual stabiliser for the indigenous communities of Basoga. SBC and NAPE believe that the Bujagali dam is a "product of political engineering and corruption".

The author's alternative to large hydro in Uganda is placing emphasis on renewable solutions such as biogas, solar and especially wind, with the belief that a rational combination of these alternative and small hydro schemes is the only hope for rural electrification. The craze for large hydro is excluding other energy sources, including traditionally utilised fuelwood. The Bujagali process is one of political engineering, corruption and hydropolitical lunacy.

Mr. Geoffrey Chavula
University of Malawi, Malawi
The Potential of Using Community-based Small-Earth Dams for Irrigation Development

In drought-prone Malawi, where the protracted dry season leads to considerable crop damage, the government is promoting small earthen dams, which use technologies that can be managed by local communities. The attempts to highlight the important role that small dams play in the development of irrigated agriculture in Malawi. Small earth dams are considered ideal for Malawi, as they are cheap and can be easily maintained by the beneficiary community without hiring dam engineers. Small dams offer a solution to the key issue of poverty alleviation through the sustenance of food security. However, catchment areas need to be protected from degradation in order to retard the silting process of the dams.

Since small dams fall under the category of water development projects that are supposed to be subjected to EIA, there is need to carry out impact assessment at all stages of the dam project. This process will ensure that adverse effects are mitigated while enhancing the positive effects. The developers of small dams should comply with the conditions set out in the water rights granted by water resources board in respect of compensation flows. This will help to avert conflicts among water users and prevent developers from violating water rights.

Mr. Kamau Bobotti
Tana & Athi Rivers Development Authority, Kenya
Large Dams and Water Resources Management: Reviewing Alternate Options

Mr. Bobotti presented the case of water management in Kenya within the Tana River Basin and discussed the experiences and lessons learned. In Kenya, there is acute competition between land use for socio-economic activities and the land phase of the water-cycle. Water management is therefore of particular concern since the primary source of water is rainfall and it is unevenly distributed in the country.

He suggested that the main strategies to overcome water deficit are: 1) efficient water use control & conservation, 2) water recycling & groundwater recharging, 3) water storage & distribution for different uses, and 4) enabling an environment of good governance. Of particular relevance for the dams debate is the issue of water storage since in 83% of Kenya, water resources development requires an option that includes the construction of dams. Three examples of dams are given in which multiple issues are considered (from resettlement and compensation to the need for hydropower and irrigation), and at the end five lessons learnt are given.

There is a series of dams in Tana River, of which Masinga dam is the most significant. It impounds 1.5 BCM. The rainfall is erratic and has failed for two consecutive years and this year was late. There is a need to implement conservation and water recycling including groundwater recharge. There is a law to regulate these options. The Act allows diversions only for beneficial uses. Domestic supply and ecological use are priority uses. The law has no provision for charging for water, however there is also resistance to paying for it unless it is govt provided. Recycling is not done well but has potential. The Law on compulsory acquisitions is neither friendly nor equitable and this may require change to safeguard human rights and equity.

Mr. Abdel Tamimi
Palestinian Hydrology Group, Palestine
Water Harvesting and Small-scale Dams as Constructive Tools for Solving Water Conflict in the Region

(Paper not presented)

The comprehensive view for the water resources in the Palestinian Territories illustrates that these resources are limited due to natural and political reasons. The Palestinian-Israeli Oslo Agreement Brazil stated that the water should remain under the control of the Israelis and the final negotiation round postponed the water subject.

It is also well known that Israel suffers from great water shortage, which will appear in the very near future. Israel consumes about 99% of the available resources whereas its water need exceeds about 5-7% annually.

Consequently, there is a necessity for searching for substantial water resources especially in the Palestinian Territories and the neighbouring countries such as Jordan and Israel. There is consensus in most studies conducted that water harvesting is the most appropriate option for future in addition to other options. This is due to the fact that it is a considerably cheap option and there is a necessity to benefit from the water flowing into the sea during the winter season. There is no need for high technical procedures or rare skills for managing such projects. It is also very important to state that the water harvesting projects correlate with the economic and social situation for the nations of the area.

Therefore, some Palestinian studies illustrate that water harvesting can save about 15% of the future needs for agricultural water and about 7-8% of water needed for domestic purposes. Due to the significance of this subject, the working group on water resources that proceeded as a result of the multilateral negotiations for peace in the Middle East, requested the wide use of water harvesting in the Middle East countries. The participating countries put a strategy for benefiting from the water harvesting for the following purposes:

• Providing needed water supply for people (top priority) for animals and for crops; and
• Augmenting their overall water availability by capturing water, which would otherwise be lost to evaporation or runoff.

Water harvesting is of great significance in the Palestinian Territories, especially if we consider that about 37% of the inhabitants do not have water services through water networks and about 15% of the inhabitants (in the Gaza Strip) don't have good water services. 50% of the lands in the West Bank are rainfed agriculture, which can benefit from the water harvesting to increase its efficiency and to raise the standard of living for the inhabitants in addition to struggling against desertification.

Commissioners' question time

Commissioner Veltrop
(question directed to Chavula): What was the reference attributed to ICOLD that stated that dams increase earthquakes tenfold.

Mr. Chavula:
The statement appeared in a book and implied that the construction of a large dam increases the seismicity of the site by ten times. The reference will be given to Commissioner Veltrop.

Commissioner Scudder:
(question directed to Preston): How are you dealing with demand management in a rural context, particularly with regard to subsidies?

Dr. Preston:
Initially we chose winners for our initial campaigns and this has helped broad agreement within DWAF, and these issues are being addressed. Agreements with the agricultural sector in context of the new democracy have limited the tariff increases for the first five years. This is now being renegotiated. I am advising DWAF to make people pay a more appropriate price. If subsidies exist then use them to invest in good things such as labour intensive opportunities and land reform and make sure they are not perverse incentives.

Commissioner Scudder:
Is it too early to know if farmers are responding by moving into high value crops?

Dr. Preston:
Yes, but we will see a move to higher value crops and there will be changes in land ownership and reform.

Commissioner Henderson:
Looking at costs and benefits and who wins and who loses and also when dam is not going ahead. The winners in this case were locals and the environment. But who lost in this case?

Ms. Sephuma:
Irrigation was one aspect where commercial farmers would have used water to grow cash crops. Of 10 000 ha of land only 1 300 ended up being suitable due to problems of marketing and technical expertise. So it is not a feasible option to have large-scale farming. Other beneficiaries would have been the diamond mine. DBS came out and said they had sufficient groundwater for the mine and did not require the stored water. IUCN suggested looking at groundwater in conjunction with surface water. And government has found groundwater to meet that demand.

Commissioner Blackmore:
Is the technology of small dams being picked up? How many? Given that water rights are allocated for five years is that sufficient incentive?

Mr. Chavula:
Several hundred dams from the colonial era have silted up. Livestock dams are being rehabilitated by the government and then handed over to people. A few more dams are also being constructed. In general the water rights are extended automatically at the end of the 5 year period..

Commissioner Patkar:
I would like to ask about displaced people and sharing of equity in terms of land. How would the member of the Nubian community or Preston respond to this possibility? Is this a way out?

Mr. Gamal:
If the government comes in and decides to build the dam. The public interest here is male. The land is however worked by women. Winter crops on the Nile are the responsibility of women. Once a dam is built, then land is assigned, and assigned to males (due to the land tenure system) and these males will be anywhere but on the property. Aswan dam was not a charitable experience. The government did not uphold its responsibilities to develop the area. Cash crops in Africa is a bad legacy. Dams are built to bring people to market and then to plant cash crop. The prices are not in favour of those going to monoculture. Cotton is 1/3 price of what is on the market. Equity does not enter into the decision. (Note: the respondent thought the question referred to gender equity: in fact Commissioner Patkar was referring to sharing of equity as a stake in a project)

Dr Preston:
If dams need to be built and there are places where this is needed then it is an improvement to give equity share but that does not necessarily make it equitable.

Commissioner Moore:
Are there means by which alternatives can be identified and evaluated and pursued? Are there existing processes in your countries and are there ways of creating these processes?

Mr. Bobotti:
Water use and control is an alternative to developing a storage dam. It's feasible in our experience, in areas that have good rain distribution throughout the seasons because the storage is to fill the gap between one, the rivers and streams from shallow aquifers, and two for community use, eg directly to homes. In those areas, if water is regulated economically then conflicts would not be expected. However, in areas where the annual water distribution is such that you can have easy access to water for only 2 months of the year, you need to develop storages or means of transferring the water. Otherwise, you would have to vacate those areas.

Oweyegha-Afunaduula:
Alternatives are not featured in law-making. Small dams are ignored although socially acceptable to local people. There is currently no process in motion to capture solar power. In Uganda most power is for lighting not for industry - we also have wastes and firewood. Whatever is done about hydropower for many years to come, firewood will be the poor man's fuel source, but it does not appear in government planning. What is done is sporadic, no planning at all. There are ways of evaluating these options but there is no sign that these are being tackled in Uganda.

Ms. Cariño:
Can you comment on the statement by affected people that the burden of proof falls on those affected? What changes in planning process are needed to flip this so planners need to show that no other options are available?

Dr. Preston:
People say DSM and conservation in supply does not work but then resources are not invested. When a dam has been built, the service provider is not inclined to do DSM because they need to sell the electricity !

Chair:
The onus is on the initiators to show that alternatives have been tested and the efficacy of these tests. Much conflict resolution depends on information and participation. Government hearings and consultations show that it is the same old gang who attends - those who have money and access to money and are from institutes. . . so now committees go around to communities and have no need to turn to consultants. This helps to create a healthier climate of decision-making, just because all the relevant information is on the table.

Summary of panel 6b

The discussions turned on the degree to which options are available, the process for reviewing them, and changing the habits of decision-making from a top-down process, to a more open and participatory one.

• That dam projects go ahead only after a full options assessment tends to be the exception rather than the rule.



• Demand side management requires a host of different skills, human resources and careful planning when executing the traditional project cycle. To be truly successful, it must be accompanied by effective awareness programmes, and be part of government laws or policy.



• On the rare occasions where dams have not been built, the needs of the people have indeed been met from other sources.



• The presentations indicate that there are indeed non-dam options available in this region, yet they lack an enabling policy environment and appear to be at a historical disadvantage over the dam option.